“When culture deteriorates, there is an increase in barbarism and immorality, philosophy is misinterpreted and utter disaster follows.”
-Swami Chinmayananda
What is philosophy?
When we think of philosophy, the first people who come to our minds are Aristotle, Socrates, Plato, etc. Well, this is understandable as the word philosophy comes from the Greek word philosophia which means “love for wisdom” (Philo meaning love and Sophia meaning wisdom/knowledge).
Philosophy tries to answer the questions which science fails to answer. As science progresses, philosophy becomes a topic to study in schools and colleges. There are many subfields in philosophy like
metaphysics: It deals with the concepts of existence, reality, etc., epistemology: It studies the nature of beliefs and knowledge itself
ethics: It deals with morality and moral values
, etc.
Indian Philosophy
In saṃskṛta, the word for philosophy is darśana (viewpoint/perspective). Traditionally, most knowledge was passed down orally and thus it became imperative to develop some sort of Thread of thoughts for students: to help them grasp complex philosophical ideas easily. Thus, sūtras were developed. Coming in prime importance after Vedaḥ and the Upaniṣads, Sūtra etymologically means “thread”. These sūtra linked up/ threaded the main thoughts in the mind of students by brief statements of problems, answers, possible objections and replies to them.
These sutras were brief and thus arose the issue of interpretation. This issue was solved through commentaries of the great scholars, which were called Bhāṣya. Several scholars penned their interpretation of a sutra.
As time went on, commentaries after commentaries appeared, both justifying or criticizing other schools of thought and occasionally developing independent schools of philosophy. And although each school had a different thought process, they all existed in harmony, inviting differences as a way to improve upon their standpoints. Thus, the harmonious existence of several different schools led to the refinement of every philosophy.
Some of the more known schools are Vedānta, Buddhism, Jainism, Pūrva-Mīmāṁsā, and Sāṅkhya. Indian philosophy is divided into two main categories, āstika (accept the authority of the Vedas), and nāstika (do not believe in the authority of Vedas). Āstika is again divided into two subparts, the ones based on Vedic texts and those which are not.
Āstika darśana:
The āstika schools include:
Mīmāṃsā (the tradition of Vedic exegesis)
Vedanta (Upaniṣadic tradition)
Sāṃkhya (the enumeration school)
Yoga (the school of Patañjali)(assumes the metaphysics of Sāṃkhya)
Nyāyá (the school of logic)
Vaiśeṣika (the atomist school)
These schools believe in Vedas as an authority, the existence of ātman and Ishvara. The Mīmāṃsā and Vedanta are considered to be a direct continuation of the Vedic culture. The Vedas, directly or indirectly, are responsible for most philosophical speculations in the Indian context.
Pūrva-Mīmāṁsā:
Mīmāṁsā means “reasoned conclusion”. Mīmāṃsā is divided into two systems based on the twofold division of the Vedas (karma-khāṇḍa dealing with sacrifices and jñāna-khāṇḍa dealing with spiritual knowledge); both use the same logical method of handling their problems; both use the same literary form, but each has its limited sphere of interpretation.
The primary purpose of Mīmāṃsa is to establish the nature of right action (Dharma). The basic premise of Mīmāṃsa is that action is fundamental to the human condition. Without application, knowledge is vain; without action, happiness is impossible; without action, human destiny cannot be fulfilled; therefore, right action (Dharma) is the sine-qua-non of a meaningful life on earth.
It is broadly divided into two divisions — Pūrva Mīmāṃsā and Uttara Mīmāṃsā. Pūrva means prior, so Pūrvamīmāṃsa deals with the earlier part of the Vedas. Its scope is to interpret the actions enjoined in the Vedas, leading to Liberation. It elucidates karma-kāṇḍa of Vedas (ritualistic worship).
It is a school that focuses on the exegesis of the Vedas, philology, and interpretation of concepts of Vedic rituals. The like Apauruşeyātva (beyond human imagination) and Satahprāmāṇya vāda (epistemology) originate from this school.
Some of the leading philosophers of this darśana are Jaimini, Kumārila Bhaṭṭa, and Prabhakara. The foundational texts of Pūrvamīmāṃsa are the Pūrva Mīmāṃsā Sutras by Jaimini and Mīmāṃsāsūtra bhāśyam by Śābara.
Vedānta:
Vedānta refers to “Veda + anta”, Veda refers to Vedic knowledge and anta means the end or in this context, conclusion. The Upaniṣads are the latter portion of the Vedas, and the Vedānta-sūtra summarises the philosophy of the Upaniṣads in concise statements. Therefore the word ‘Vedānta’ especially refers to the Vedānta-sūtra.
Vedanta is centred on a fundamental truth of the universe that cannot be reduced to a concept or word for the ordinary mind to manipulate. Rather, the human experience and mind are themselves a tiny fragment of this truth. In this tradition, no physical object can be identified as absolute truth, such that one may say, “That’s it”. So, to keep the mind from attaching to incomplete fragments of reality, a speaker could use this term to indicate that truth is “Not that.”
It focuses on interpreting the philosophy of the Upanishads, particularly the metaphysical ideas relating to ātman, brahman, jīva, īśvara, etc. The Prasthanatrayi (the three sources) constitute the basis of Vedanta. These are The Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita and the Brahma Sutras.
There are more subcategories in Vedanta, they are:
Bhedabheda Vedanta (difference and non-difference)
Advaita Vedanta (non-dualism)
Vishishtadvaita Vedanta (qualified non-dualism)
Tattvavada/dvaita Vedanta (dualism)
Shuddhādvaita Vedanta (pure nondualism)
Some of the prominent philosophers of Vedanta are Gaudapada, Adi Shankara, and Madhusudana Saraswati. The foundational texts for this school are the Prasthanatrayi, Avadhuta Gita, Ashtavakra Gita, and Pañcadaśī.
Sāṅkhya:
The meaning of the word sāṅkhya depends on the context but in Indian philosophy, it refers to the philosophical school in Hinduism based on systematic enumeration and rational examination.
This system of āstika darśana is attributed to the sage Kapila. It is called Sāṅkhya because it enumerates twenty-five Tattvas or various categories of reality beginning with Prakṛti or Pradhāna — primordial matter; and Puruṣa or Self. The conscious Self Puruṣa is passive and Prakṛti Active. Puruṣa becomes entangled in samsara and its attendant sufferings and is born again and again. A correct knowledge of the 25 categories will enable one to overcome avidyā or ignorance and suffering and achieve liberation from samsāra.
A philosophical tradition that regards the universe as consisting of two independent realities: puruṣa (‘consciousness’) and prakṛti (‘matter’) and which attempts to develop a metaphysics based on this duality.
Puruṣa is witness-consciousness. It is absolute, independent, free, imperceptible, unknowable through other agencies, above any experience by mind or senses and beyond any words or explanations. It remains pure, “nonattributive consciousness”. No appellations can qualify puruṣa, nor can it be substantialized or objectified.
Unmanifest prakriti is the primordial matter. It is inactive, and unconscious, and consists of an equilibrium of the three guṇas (‘qualities, innate tendencies’), namely sattva, rajas, and tamas. When prakṛti comes into contact with Purusha this equilibrium is disturbed, and Prakriti becomes manifest, evolving twenty-three tattvas, namely intellect (buddhi, mahat), ego (ahamkara) mind (manas); the five sensory capacities; the five action capacities; and the five subtle elements or “modes of sensory content” (tanmatras), from which the five gross elements or “forms of perceptual objects” (earth, water, fire, air and space) emerge giving rise to the manifestation of sensory experience and cognition.
The main philosophers of sāṅkhya are Kapila, Isvarakṛṣṇa, Vacaspati Misra, and Gunaratna. Some prominent texts in of this darśana are sāṅkhyapravachana Sutra, sāṅkhyakarika, sāṅkhyatattvakaumudi.
Yoga:
Yoga means “union” and is interpreted as “union with the divine”. One of the most detailed and thorough expositions on the subject is the Yoga Sūtras of Maharshi Patañjali, which defines yoga as “the stilling of the changing states of the mind”.
The ultimate goals of yoga are stilling the mind and gaining insight, resting in detached awareness, and liberation (Moksha) from saṃsāra and duḥkha: a process (or discipline) leading to unity (Aikyam) with the divine (Brahman) or with one’s Self (Ātman). This goal varies by philosophical or theological system. In the classical Astanga yoga system, the ultimate goal of yoga is to achieve samadhi and remain in that state of pure awareness.
Maharshi Patanjali divided yoga into 8 parts (aṣṭāṅgayoga-eight limbs of yoga):
Yamas (right living)
Niyamas (duties or observances)
Āsana (steady and comfortable positions)
Prānāyāma (controlling prāṇa)
Pratyāhāra (gathering towards)
Dhāraṇā (bearing)
Dhyāna (meditation)
Samādhi (state of the original balance)
The leading philosophers of this school were Patanjali, Yajnavalkya, and Vyasa. and some of the classical texts are Yoga Sutras, Yoga Yajnavalkya, and Samkhya pravacana bhasya.
Nayāya:
Nyāya means “justice”, this system is one of the six āstika systems of Indian Philosophy. The oldest name of Nyāya is Ānvikṣikī (the science of inquiry) ascribed to Aksapada Gautama. In later times Ānvikṣikī has come to be denoted as Nyāya-śāstra (the science of true reasoning). The Nyāya system is atomistic, pluralistic and realistic.
This school’s most significant contributions to Indian philosophy were the systematic development of the theory of logic, methodology, and its treatises on epistemology. It defends a form of direct realism and a theory of substances (dravya). It is based on realism, logic, and analytic philosophy. Ancient Mithila University was famous for Nyaya Shastra teaching.
The Nyaya metaphysics recognizes sixteen padārthas or categories and includes all six (or seven) categories of the Vaisheshika in the second one of them, called prameya. These sixteen categories are:
pramāṇa (valid means of knowledge)
prameya (objects of valid knowledge)
saṃśaya (doubt)
prayojana (aim)
dṛṣṭānta (example)
siddhānta (conclusion)
avayava (members of a syllogism)
tarka (hypothetical reasoning)
nirṇaya (settlement)
vāda (discussion)
jalpa (wrangling)
vitaṇḍā (cavilling)
hetvābhāsa (fallacy)
chala (quibbling)
jāti (sophisticated refutation)
nigrahasthāna (point of defeat)
The notable philosophers of this darśana are Aksapada Gautama, Vātsyāyana, Udayana, and Jayanta Bhatta, and the fundamental texts are Nyāya Sutras, Nyāya Bhāṣya, Nyāya Vārttika.
Vaiseṣika:
It is closely related to the Nyāya school. This tradition focused on the metaphysics of substance, and on defending a theory of atoms. Unlike Nyaya, they only accept two pramāṇas: Pratyakṣa (perception) and Anumāna (inference).
In its early stages, the Vaiśeṣika was an independent philosophy with its metaphysics, epistemology, logic, ethics, and soteriology. Over time, the Vaiśeṣika system became similar in its philosophical procedures, ethical conclusions and soteriology to the Nyāya school of Hinduism, but retained its difference in epistemology and metaphysics.
It advocates Dualistic Realism. It is said that this system has been founded on a Ṛk ascribed to the Seer Dīrghatamas. The Ṛk narrates that two birds which are intimate friends reside in the same tree. One of them eats the sweet fruits, while the other without eating just looks on. The dualistic philosophers are influenced by this Ṛk which implies the distinction between the individual self and the supreme self.
According to the Vaiśeṣika school, the trasareṇu are the smallest mahat (perceivable) particles and are defined as tryaṇukas (triads). These are made of three parts, each of which is defined as dvyaṇuka (dyad). The dvyaṇukas are conceived as made of two parts, each of which is defined as paramāṇu (atom). The paramāṇus (atoms) are indivisible and eternal, they can neither be created nor destroyed. Each paramāṇu (atom) possesses its distinct viśeṣa (individuality) and has an inhering relation which is responsible for change and motion.
The measure of the partless atoms is known as parimaṇḍala parimāṇa. It is eternal and it cannot generate the measure of any other substance. Its measure is it's own absolutely.
The main philosophers are Kaṇāda (founder), Prasastapāda, Śridhara’s Nyāyakandali and some prominent texts are Vaiseṣika Sūtra, Padārtha dharma sāmgraha, Daśapadārtha śāstra.
Nāstika Darśana:
Buddhism:
The origin of Buddhism was in the sixth century B.C. This new religion was shaped by Hinduism which prevailed at that time. Buddhism which had its origin in North India prevailed everywhere in India up to the eleventh century A.D. During that period there was an overflow of this religion to the other parts of Asia.
In Buddhism, the Four Noble Truths (catvāri āryasatyāni) are the truths of the noble ones, the truths or realities for the spiritually worthy ones. These are
Duḥkha (suffering)
samudāya (origin)
nirodha (cessation)
marga (path)
The truth of duḥkha is the basic insight that life in this mundane world, with its clinging and craving to impermanent states and things, is duḥkha, and unsatisfactory.
Samudaya together with duḥkha arises taṇhā (“thirst”). While taṇhā is traditionally interpreted in western languages as the ‘cause’ of duḥkha, tanha can also be seen as the factor tying us to duḥkha, or as a response to duḥkha, trying to escape it
Duḥkha can be ended or contained by the renouncement or letting go of this taṇhā; the confinement of taṇhā releases the excessive bind of duḥkha.
Instead of Moksha from the general Indian philosophies, Buddhism believes in the ultimate goal of Nirvāṇa which is a transcendent state in which there is neither suffering, desire, nor sense of self, and the subject is released from the effects of karma and the cycle of death and rebirth.
The Buddhist Pāli Scriptures contain three different collections: the Sutta (relating to the doctrines), the Vinaya (relating to the discipline of the monks) and the Abhidhamma (relating generally to the same subjects as the suttas but dealing with them in a scholastic and technical manner). Scholars of the Buddhistic religious history of modern times have failed as yet to fix any definite dates for the collection or composition of the different parts of the aforesaid canonical literature of the Buddhists.
The prominent philosophers were Siddārtha Gautama (Gautama Budhha), Aśvaghosa, Nāgārjuna, Asanga, Vasubandh, Candrakīrti, Dharmakīrti, Śāntideva.
Jainism:
The Jains exist only in India and their number is a little less than a million and a half. There are two main sects of Jains, Śvetāmbaras (wearers of white cloths) and Digambaras (the naked). They are generally agreed on all the fundamental principles of Jainism.
Mahāvīra was a contemporary of Buddha, but unlike Buddha, he was neither the author of the religion nor the founder of the sect, but a monk who had espoused the Jaina creed afterwards became the seer and the last prophet (Tīrthaṅkara) of Jainism.
Regarding the meaning of the term Tīrthaṅkara different opinions have been given by the Jaina followers. The word Tīrthaṅkara is a derivation of the word tīrtha in the sense of taraṇa (boat) which means bridge. Thus Tīrthaṅkara is a bridge maker. Śvetāmbara and Digambara define Tīrthaṅkara as a prophet. A Tīrthaṅkara is always freeform all the causes of the bondage of this ocean of saṃsāra or transmigration.
Jaina philosophy is like a mix between āstika darśanas and Buddhism. Many terms have been borrowed from āstika philosophies but some with a slight change in meaning. There is a lot of emphasis on ahiṃsa in Jainism.
Some major Jain philosophers were Māhāvīra, Umāsvāti, Samantabhadra, Kundakunda, Siddhasena Divākara, Akalanka, etc.
Cārvāka:
Cārvāka or also known as Lokāyata is the materialistic philosophy of ancient India. Materialism is the name given to metaphysical doctrine which states that matter is the only truth and that consciousness and mind are products of matter. This school of thought opposes the spiritual view of the universe. There is no god, soul or creator of the universe according to a materialist.
The Cārvākas hold that the highest goal of a man’s life should be the enjoyment of the greatest amount of pleasure. Since there is no direct-perceptible proof of an afterlife and that our life is just a combination of elements which will fade after we pass away, there is no point in indulging in austerities and rigorous self-disciplinary activities. The philosophy of Cārvāka is essentially scepticism.
No independent works on Cārvāka philosophy can be found except for a few sūtras attributed to Brihaspati. The 8th century Tattvopaplavasimha of Jayarāśi Bhaṭṭa with Madhyamaka influence is a significant source of Cārvāka philosophy. Shatdarshan Samuchay and Sarvadarśanasaṅ̇graha of Vidyaranya are a few other works which elucidate Cārvāka thought. There was no continuity in the Cārvāka tradition after the 12th century. Whatever is written on Cārvāka post is based on second-hand knowledge, learned from preceptors to disciples and no independent works on Cārvāka philosophy can be found. Chatterjee and Datta explain that our understanding of Cārvāka philosophy is fragmentary, based largely on criticism of its ideas by other schools, and that it is not a living tradition
Ājīvika:
Ajivika is an ascetic sect that emerged in India about the same time as Buddhism and Jainism and that lasted until the 14th century; the name may mean “following the ascetic way of life.” It was founded by Goshala Maskariputra, a friend of Mahavira, the 24th Tirthankara of Jainism. His doctrines and those of his followers are known only from Buddhist and Jain sources, which state that he was lowborn and died after a quarrel with Mahavira shortly before the Buddha died.
The Ājīvikas may simply have been a more loosely-organized group of wandering ascetics (saṃnyāsis). One of their prominent leaders was Makkhali Gosala. Ājīvika is thought to be contemporaneous to other early Indian nāstika darśanas. Ājīvika believes in total determinism and no free will. Everything in human life and the universe, according to Ajivikas, was pre-determined, operating out of cosmic principles, and true choice did not exist.
Primary sources and literature of the Ājīvikas are lost, or yet to be found. Everything that is known about Ājīvika history and its philosophy is from secondary sources, such as the ancient and medieval texts of India. Inconsistent fragments of Ājīvika history are found mostly in Jain texts such as the Bhagvati Sutra and Buddhist texts such as the Samaññaphala Sutta and Sandaka Sutta, and Buddhaghosa’s.
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